Medical research

Biomedical research (or experimental medicine), in general simply known as medical research, is thebasic research, applied research, or translational research conducted to aid and support the body of knowledge in the field of medicine. Medical research can be divided into two general categories: the evaluation of new treatments for both safety and efficacy in what are termed clinical trials, and all other research that contributes to the development of new treatments. The latter is termed preclinical research if its goal is specifically to elaborate knowledge for the development of new therapeutic strategies. A new paradigm to biomedical research is being termedtranslational research, which focuses on iterative feedback loops between the basic and clinical research domains to accelerate knowledge translation from the bedside to the bench, and back again.

The increased longevity of humans over the past century can be significantly attributed to advances resulting from medical research. Among the major benefits have been vaccines for measles and polio,insulin treatment for diabetes, classes of antibiotics for treating a host of maladies, medication for high blood pressure, improved treatments for AIDS, statins and other treatments for atherosclerosis, new surgical techniques such as microsurgery, and increasingly successful treatments for cancer. New, beneficial tests and treatments are expected as a result of thehuman genome project. Many challenges remain, however, including the appearance of antibiotic resistance and the obesity epidemic.

"I have flu-like symptoms/swollen glands - could it be HIV?"

Many illnesses have flu-like symptoms or cause swollen glands. You cannot have HIV unless you have been directly exposed to the virus. HIV can be transmitted during sexual intercourse with an infected person, through contact with infected blood or breastmilk, or during unsafe injections or medical procedures. If you are not sure whether or not you have been at risk of HIV then read our page about how you can and can't be infected with HIV.

The only way you can find out whether or not you have been infected is to have an HIV test.

Symptoms following HIV infection

Some people who become infected with HIV do not notice any immediate change in their health. However, some suffer from a brief flu-like illness within a few weeks of becoming infected, or develop a rash or swollen glands. These symptoms do not indicate the development of AIDS, and the symptoms usually disappear within a few days or weeks.

Symptoms caused by opportunistic infections

Opportunistic infections are caused by germs that are around us all the time but which can normally be fought off by a healthy immune system. Once the immune system is sufficiently weakened, such infections will develop and produce any of a wide range of symptoms. Some of these symptoms can be very severe. Certain cancers also become more common when the immune system is weakened.

Such symptoms, however, cannot themselves be interpreted as definite signs of HIV infection or AIDS. A diagnosis of AIDS requires signs of severe immune deficiency, which cannot be explained by any factor except HIV. This generally requires an HIV test.

What are the symptoms of HIV and AIDS?

It is not possible to reliably diagnose HIV infection or AIDS based on symptoms alone. HIV symptoms are very similar to the symptoms of other illnesses. So the only way to know for sure whether a person is infected with HIV is for them to have an HIV test.

People living with HIV may feel and look completely well but their immune systems may nevertheless be damaged. It is important to remember that once someone is infected with HIV they can pass the virus on immediately, even if they feel healthy.

HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. If a person infected with HIV does not take effective antiretroviral treatment, over time HIV will weaken their immune system, which will make them much more vulnerable to opportunistic infections.

Heart failure - home monitoring

Knowing your body and the symptoms that tell you your heart failure is getting worse will help you stay healthier and out of the hospital. At home, you should watch for changes in your:

• Heart rate
• Pulse
• Blood pressure
• Weight

When you are watching out for warning signs, you can catch problems before they get too serious. Sometimes these simple checks will remind you that you forgot to take a pill, or that you have been drinking too much fluid or eating too much salt.
Be sure to write down the results of your home self-checks so that you can share them with your doctor. Your doctor’s office may have a "telemonitor," a device you can use to send your information automatically. A nurse will go over your self-check results with you in a weekly phone call.
Throughout the day, ask yourself:

• Is my energy level normal?
• Am I getting more short of breath when I am doing my everyday activities?
• Are my clothes or shoes feeling tight?
• Are my ankles or legs swelling?
• Am I coughing more often? Does my cough sound wet?
• Do I get short of breath at night?

These are signs that there is too much fluid building up in your body. You will need to learn how to limit your fluids and salt intake to prevent these things from happening.

Heart failure - discharge

You were in the hospital to have your heart failure treated. Heart failure occurs when the muscles of your heart are weak. Your heart is a pump that moves fluids through your body. As with any pump, if the flow is not strong enough, fluids do not move well and they get stuck in places they should not be. In your body, this means that fluid collects in your lungs and legs.

While you were in the hospital:

• Your health care team closely adjusted the fluids you drank or received through an intravenous line (IV). They also watched and measured how much urine you produced.
• You may have received medicines to help your body get rid of extra fluids.
• You may have had tests to check how well your heart was working.

Heart failure - fluids and diuretics

When you have heart failure, your heart does not pump strongly enough. This causes fluids to build up in your body. If you drink too many fluids, you may get symptoms such as swelling, weight gain, and shortness of breath. Limiting how much you drink and how much salt (sodium) you take in can help prevent these symptoms.

Your family members can help you take care of yourself. They can keep an eye on how much you drink. They can make sure you are taking your medicines the right way. And they can learn to recognize your symptoms early.
Your doctor may ask you to lower the amount of fluids you drink:

• When your heart failure is not very bad, you may not have to limit your fluids too much.
• As your heart failure gets worse, you may need to limit fluids to 6 - 9 cups a day (about 1 1/2 to 2 liters).

Heart failure

Heart failure, also called congestive heart failure, is a condition in which the heart can no longer pump enough blood to the rest of the body.
Causes

Heart failure is a chronic, long-term condition, although it can sometimes develop suddenly.
The condition may affect only the right side or only the left side of the heart. These are called right-sided heart failure or left-sided heart failure. More often, both sides of the heart are involved.
Heart failure is present when the following changes are present:

• Your heart muscle cannot pump, or eject, the blood out of the heart very well. This is called systolic heart failure.
• Your heart muscles are stiff and do not fill up with blood easily. This is called diastolic heart failure.

Both of these problems mean the heart is no longer able to pump enough oxygen-rich blood out to the rest of your body, especially when you exercise or are active.
As the heart's pumping action is lost, blood may back up in other areas of the body, causing fluid to build up in the lungs, the liver, the gastrointestinal tract, and the arms and legs. As a result, there is a lack of oxygen and nutrition to organs, which damages them and reduces their ability to work properly.
Perhaps the most common cause of heart failure is coronary artery disease (CAD), a narrowing of the small blood vessels that supply blood and oxygen to the heart. For information on this condition and its risk factors, see: Coronary artery diseaseCoronary artery disease.
Heart failure can also occur when an infection weakens the heart muscle. Such a disorder is called cardiomyopathy. There are many different types. For more information, see: CardiomyopathyCardiomyopathy
Other heart problems that may cause heart failure are:

• Congenital heart disease
• Heart attack
• Heart valve disease
• Some types of abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias)

Diseases such as emphysema, severe anemia, hyperthyroidism, or hypothyroidism may also cause or contribute to heart failure.

Symptoms

Symptoms of heart failure most often begin slowly. At first, they may only occur when you are very active. Over time, breathing problems and other symptoms may be noticed even when you are resting.
However, heart failure symptoms may begin suddenly after a heart attack or other heart problem.
Common symptoms are:

• Shortness of breathShortness of breath with activity, or after lying down for a while
• CoughCough
• Swelling of feetSwelling of feet and ankles
• Swelling of the abdomenSwelling of the abdomen
• Weight gainWeight gain
• Irregular or rapid pulsepulse
• Sensation of feeling the heart beat (palpitationspalpitations)
• Difficulty sleepingDifficulty sleeping
• FatigueFatigue, weaknessweakness, faintnessfaintness
• Loss of appetiteLoss of appetite, indigestionindigestion

Other symptoms may include:

• Decreased alertnessDecreased alertness or concentration
• Decreased urine productionDecreased urine production
• Nausea and vomitingNausea and vomiting
• Need to urinate at nightNeed to urinate at night

Infants may sweat during feeding (or other activity).
Some patients with heart failure have no symptoms. In these people, the symptoms may develop only with these conditions:

• Abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmiasarrhythmias)
• AnemiaAnemia
• HyperthyroidismHyperthyroidism
• Infections with high fever
• Kidney diseaseKidney disease

Exams and Tests

Exams and Tests

A physical examination may reveal the following:

• Fluid around the lungsFluid around the lungs (pleural effusion)
• Irregular heartbeat
• Leg swelling (edema)
• Neck veins that stick out (are distended)
• Swelling of the liver

Listening to the chest with a stethoscope may reveal lung crackles or abnormal heart soundsabnormal heart sounds.
The following tests may be used to diagnose or monitor heart failure:

• Chest x-rayChest x-ray
• ECGECG
• EchocardiogramEchocardiogram
• Cardiac stress tests
• Heart CT scan
• Heart catheterizationHeart catheterization
• MRI of the heart
• Nuclear heart scansNuclear heart scans

This disease may also alter the following test results:

• Blood chemistryBlood chemistry
• BUNBUN
• Complete blood countComplete blood count
• CreatinineCreatinine
• Creatinine clearanceCreatinine clearance
• Liver function testsLiver function tests
• Uric acidUric acid -blood test
• SodiumSodium - blood test
• UrinalysisUrinalysis
• Sodium - urine test

Treatment

Treatment

MONITORING AND SELF CARE
If you have heart failure, your doctor will monitor you closely. You will have follow up appointments at least every 3 to 6 months and tests to check your heart function. For example, an ultrasound of your heart (echocardiogram) will be done once in awhile to see how well your heart pumps blood with each beat.
You will need to carefully monitor yourself and help manage your condition. One important way to do this is to track your weight on a daily basis. Weigh yourself at the same time each day and on the same scale, with little to no clothes on.
Weight gain can be a sign that your body is holding onto extra fluid and your heart failure is worsening. Talk to your doctor about what you should do if your weight goes up or if you develop more symptoms.
Other important measures include:

• Take your medications as directed. Carry a list of medications with you wherever you go.
• Limit salt intake.
• Do not smoke.
• Stay active. For example, walk or ride a stationary bicycle. Your doctor can provide a safe and effective exercise plan for your degree of heart failure. DO NOT exercise on days that your weight has gone up from fluid retention or you are not feeling well.
• Lose weight if you are overweight.
• Get enough rest, including after exercise, eating, or other activities. This allows your heart to rest as well. Keep your feet elevated to decrease swelling.

Here are some tips to lower your salt and sodium intake:

• Look for foods that are labeled “low-sodium,” “sodium-free,” “no salt added,” or “unsalted.” Check the total sodium content on food labels. Be especially careful of canned, packaged, and frozen foods. A nutritionist can teach you how to understand these labels.
• Don’t cook with salt or add salt to what you are eating. Try pepper, garlic, lemon, or other spices for flavor instead. Be careful of packaged spice blends as these often contain salt or salt products (like monosodium glutamate, MSG).
• Avoid foods that are naturally high in sodium, like anchovies, meats (particularly cured meats, bacon, hot dogs, sausage, bologna, ham, and salami), nuts, olives, pickles, sauerkraut, soy and Worcestershire sauces, tomato and other vegetable juices, and cheese.
• Take care when eating out. Stick to steamed, grilled, baked, boiled, and broiled foods with no added salt, sauce, or cheese.
• Use oil and vinegar, rather than bottled dressings, on salads.
• Eat fresh fruit or sorbet when having dessert.

MEDICATIONS
Your doctor may prescribe the following medications:

• ACE inhibitors such as captopril, enalapril, lisinopril, and ramipril to open up blood vessels and decrease the work load of the heart
• Diuretics including hydrochlorothiazide, chlorthalidone, chlorothiazide, furosemide, torsemide, bumetanide, and spironolactone to help rid your body of fluid and salt (sodium)
• Digitalis glycosides to help the heart muscle to contract properly and help treat some heart rhythm disturbances
• Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) such as losartan and candesartan for those who have side effects with ACE inhibitors
• Beta-blockers such as carvedilol and metoprolol, which may be helpful for some patients

Certain medications may make heart failure worse and should be avoided. These include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, thiazolidinediones, metformin, cilostazol, PDE-5 inhibitors (sildenafil, vardenafil), and many drugs that treat abnormal heart rhythms.
SURGERIES AND DEVICES
Heart valve surgery, coronary bypass surgery (CABG), and angioplasty may help some people with heart failure.
The following devices may be recommended for certain patients with heart failure:

• A pacemakerpacemaker to help treat slow heart rates or other heart signaling problems
• A biventricular pacemaker to help the both sides of your heart contract at the same time; it is also called cardiac resynchronization therapy.
• An implantable cardioverter-defibrillatorimplantable cardioverter-defibrillator that recognizes life-threatening, abnormal heart rhythms and sends an electrical pulse to stop them.

Severe heart failure may require the following treatments when other therapies no longer work. They are often used when a person is waiting for a heart transplant:

• Intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP)
• Left ventricular assist deviceLeft ventricular assist device (LVAD)

Note: These devices can be life saving, but they are not permanent solutions. Patients who become dependent on circulatory support will need a heart transplantheart transplant.